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            <funder>BMvR and IK thank the German Science Foundation (DFG) for funding this work by a grant to BMvR (DFG RE3454/6–1). BMvR and AV acknowledge generous funding obtained by AV from the Hessian Ministry of Higher Education, Research, and the Arts for the group “Animal Venomics”, which was coordinated by BMvR until end of 2021 at the Institute for Insectbiotechnology at the Justus Liebig University, embedded in the LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics.</funder>
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              <p>Background : Venoms, which have evolved numerous times in animals, are ideal models of convergent trait evolution. However, detailed genomic studies of toxin-encoding genes exist for only a few animal groups. The hyper-diverse hymenopteran insects are the most speciose venomous clade, but investigation of the origin of their venom genes has been largely neglected. Results : Utilizing a combination of genomic and proteo-transcriptomic data, we investigated the origin of 11 toxin genes in 29 published and 3 new hymenopteran genomes and compiled an up-to-date list of prevalent bee venom proteins. Observed patterns indicate that bee venom genes predominantly originate through single gene co-option with gene duplication contributing to subsequent diversification. Conclusions : Most Hymenoptera venom genes are shared by all members of the clade and only melittin and the new venom protein family anthophilin1 appear unique to the bee lineage. Most venom proteins thus predate the mega-radiation of hymenopterans and the evolution of the aculeate stinger.</p>
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