. Who, Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Test Performance - results of WHO product testing of malaria RDTs: Round 1 (2008), WHO | World malaria report, 2009.

S. Bhatt, The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between 2000 and 2015, Nature, vol.526, pp.207-211, 2015.

M. Weill, G. Lutfalla, K. Mogensen, F. Chandre, A. Berthomieu et al., Insecticide resistance in mosquito vectors, Nature, vol.423, issue.6936, pp.136-137, 2003.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00186375

H. Ranson and N. Lissenden, Insecticide Resistance in African Anopheles Mosquitoes: A Worsening Situation that Needs Urgent Action to Maintain Malaria Control, Trends in Parasitology, vol.32, issue.3, pp.187-196, 2016.

R. N. Price, A. Uhlemann, A. Brockman, R. Mcgready, E. Ashley et al., Mefloquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum and increased pfmdr1 gene copy number, The Lancet, vol.364, issue.9432, pp.438-447, 2004.

F. Ariey, A molecular marker of artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria, Nature, vol.505, pp.50-55, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00921203

R. Carter, Transmission blocking malaria vaccines, Vaccine, vol.19, issue.17-19, pp.2309-2314, 2001.

R. Carter and D. H. Chen, Malaria transmission blocked by immunisation with gametes of the malaria parasite, Nature, vol.263, issue.5572, pp.57-60, 1976.

O. K. Doumbo, K. Niaré, S. A. Healy, I. Sagara, and P. E. Duffy, Malaria Transmission-Blocking Vaccines: Present Status and Future Perspectives, Towards Malaria Elimination - A Leap Forward, 2018.

F. K. Acquah, J. Adjah, K. C. Williamson, and L. E. Amoah, Transmission-Blocking Vaccines: Old Friends and New Prospects, Infection and Immunity, vol.87, issue.6, pp.775-793, 2019.

Y. Wu, R. E. Sinden, T. S. Churcher, T. Tsuboi, and V. Yusibov, Development of Malaria Transmission-Blocking Vaccines: From Concept to Product, Advances in Parasitology, vol.89, pp.109-152, 2015.

A. Bompard, D. F. Da, R. S. Yerbanga, S. Biswas, M. Kapulu et al., Evaluation of two lead malaria transmission blocking vaccine candidate antibodies in natural parasite-vector combinations, Scientific Reports, vol.7, issue.1, pp.1-9, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02005439

D. K. Mathias, R. Pastrana-mena, E. Ranucci, D. Tao, P. Ferruti et al., A Small Molecule Glycosaminoglycan Mimetic Blocks Plasmodium Invasion of the Mosquito Midgut, PLoS Pathogens, vol.9, issue.11, p.e1003757, 2013.

G. Niu, B. Wang, G. Zhang, J. B. King, R. H. Cichewicz et al., Targeting mosquito FREP1 with a fungal metabolite blocks malaria transmission, Scientific Reports, vol.5, issue.1, p.14694, 2015.

Y. Dong, F. Manfredini, and G. Dimopoulos, Implication of the Mosquito Midgut Microbiota in the Defense against Malaria Parasites, PLoS Pathogens, vol.5, issue.5, p.e1000423, 2009.

C. M. Cirimotich, J. L. Ramirez, and G. Dimopoulos, Native Microbiota Shape Insect Vector Competence for Human Pathogens, Cell Host & Microbe, vol.10, issue.4, pp.307-310, 2011.

G. L. Hughes, A. Rivero, and J. L. Rasgon, Wolbachia Can Enhance Plasmodium Infection in Mosquitoes: Implications for Malaria Control?, PLoS Pathogens, vol.10, issue.9, p.e1004182, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02361640

C. T. Atkinson, K. L. Woods, R. J. Dusek, L. S. Sileo, and W. M. Iko, Wildlife disease and conservation in Hawaii: Pathogenicity of avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) in experimentally infected Iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea), Parasitology, vol.111, issue.S1, pp.S59-S69, 1995.

C. T. Atkinson and M. D. Samuel, Avian malaria Plasmodium relictum in native Hawaiian forest birds: epizootiology and demographic impacts on ?apapane Himatione sanguinea, Journal of Avian Biology, vol.41, issue.4, pp.357-366, 2010.

J. G. Ewen, S. Bensch, T. M. Blackburn, C. Bonneaud, R. Brown et al., Establishment of exotic parasites: the origins and characteristics of an avian malaria community in an isolated island avifauna, Ecology Letters, vol.15, issue.10, pp.1112-1119, 2012.

K. Ichimori, Correlation of mosquito size, blood meal size and malarial oocyst production, Medical Entomology and Zoology, vol.40, issue.2, pp.81-85, 1989.

G. M. Jeffery, Blood meal volume in Anopheles quadrimaculatus, A. albimanus and Aedes aegypti, Experimental Parasitology, vol.5, issue.4, pp.371-375, 1956.

J. Bradley, Decision letter: Predicting the likelihood and intensity of mosquito infection from sex specific Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte density, vol.7, p.34463, 2018.

D. F. Da, T. S. Churcher, R. S. Yerbanga, B. Yaméogo, I. Sangaré et al., Experimental study of the relationship between Plasmodium gametocyte density and infection success in mosquitoes; implications for the evaluation of malaria transmission-reducing interventions, Experimental Parasitology, vol.149, pp.74-83, 2015.

A. L. Ouédraogo, B. P. Gonçalves, A. Gnémé, E. A. Wenger, M. W. Guelbeogo et al., Dynamics of the Human Infectious Reservoir for Malaria Determined by Mosquito Feeding Assays and Ultrasensitive Malaria Diagnosis in Burkina Faso, Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol.213, issue.1, pp.90-99, 2015.

C. Koepfli and G. Yan, Plasmodium Gametocytes in Field Studies: Do We Measure Commitment to Transmission or Detectability?, Trends in Parasitology, vol.34, issue.5, pp.378-387, 2018.

H. C. Slater, A. Ross, I. Felger, N. E. Hofmann, L. Robinson et al., Author Correction: The temporal dynamics and infectiousness of subpatent Plasmodium falciparum infections in relation to parasite density, Nature Communications, vol.10, issue.1, p.1433, 2019.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02747393

D. R. Drew and S. E. Reece, Development of reverse-transcription PCR techniques to analyse the density and sex ratio of gametocytes in genetically diverse Plasmodium chabaudi infections, Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, vol.156, issue.2, pp.199-209, 2007.

M. Gruenberg, N. E. Hofmann, E. Nate, S. Karl, L. J. Robinson et al., qRT-PCR versus IFA-based Quantification of Male and Female Gametocytes in Low-Density Plasmodium falciparum Infections and Their Relevance for Transmission, The Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol.221, issue.4, pp.598-607, 2019.

W. P. O?meara, F. E. Mckenzie, and W. E. Collins, Parasite Prevalence: A Static Measure of Dynamic Infections, The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol.77, issue.2, pp.246-249, 2007.

A. Färnert, Plasmodium falciparum population dynamics: only snapshots in time?, Trends in Parasitology, vol.24, issue.8, pp.340-344, 2008.

P. Schneider, S. S. Rund, N. L. Smith, K. F. Prior, A. J. O?donnell et al., Adaptive periodicity in the infectivity of malaria gametocytes to mosquitoes, Proc. Biol. Sci, vol.285, 2018.

R. Pigeault, Q. Caudron, A. Nicot, A. Rivero, and S. Gandon, Timing malaria transmission with mosquito fluctuations, Evolution Letters, vol.2, issue.4, pp.378-389, 2018.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01892556

J. Isaïa, A. Rivero, O. Glaizot, P. Christe, and R. Pigeault, Last-come, best served? Mosquito biting order and Plasmodium transmission, p.31625, 2020.

C. G. Huff and W. Bloom, A Malarial Parasite Infecting All Blood and Blood-Forming Cells of Birds, Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol.57, issue.3, pp.315-336, 1935.

C. J. Janse, B. Mons, R. J. Rouwenhorst, P. F. Van-der-klooster, J. P. Overdulve et al., In vitro formation of ookinetes and functional maturity of Plasmodium berghei gametocytes, Parasitology, vol.91, issue.1, pp.19-29, 1985.

R. G. Douglas, R. Amino, P. Sinnis, and F. Frischknecht, Active migration and passive transport of malaria parasites, Trends in Parasitology, vol.31, issue.8, pp.357-362, 2015.

M. F. Boyd, S. F. Kitchen, and W. K. Stratman-thomas, On the Relative Susceptibility of Anopheles Quadrimaculatus to Plasmodium Vivax and Plasmodium Falciparum 1, The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol.s1-15, issue.4, pp.485-493, 1935.

R. C. Muirhead-thomson and E. C. Mercier, Factors in Malaria Transmission byAnopheles Albimanusin Jamaica, Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology, vol.46, issue.2, pp.103-116, 1952.

M. E. Smalley, S. Abdalla, and J. Brown, The distribution of Plasmodium falciparum in the peripheral blood and bone marrow of Gambian children, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol.75, issue.1, pp.103-105, 1981.

M. Pritsch, A. Wieser, V. Soederstroem, D. Poluda, T. Eshetu et al., Stability of gametocyte-specific Pfs25-mRNA in dried blood spots on filter paper subjected to different storage conditions, Malaria Journal, vol.11, issue.1, p.138, 2012.

G. Pichon, H. P. Awono-ambene, and V. Robert, High heterogeneity in the number of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes in the bloodmeal of mosquitoes fed on the same host, Parasitology, vol.121, issue.2, pp.115-120, 2000.

F. O. Gaillard, C. Boudin, N. P. Chau, V. Robert, and G. Pichon, Togetherness amongPlasmodium falciparumgametocytes: interpretation through simulation and consequences for malaria transmission, Parasitology, vol.127, issue.5, pp.427-435, 2003.

R. E. Sinden, Sexual Development of Malarial Parasites, Advances in Parasitology Volume 22, vol.22, pp.153-216, 1983.

C. M. Ouédraogo, G. Nébié, L. Sawadogo, G. Rouamba, A. Ouédraogo et al., Étude des facteurs favorisant la survenue du paludisme à Plasmodium falciparum chez les femmes enceintes dans le district sanitaire de Bogodogo à Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, Journal de Gynécologie Obstétrique et Biologie de la Reproduction, vol.40, issue.6, pp.529-534, 2011.

L. A.-njunda, H. F.-kamga, D. S.-nsagha, J. N-assob, and T. E.-kwenti, Low Malaria Prevalence in HIV-Positive Patients in Bamenda, Cameroon, Journal of Microbiology Research, vol.2, issue.3, pp.56-59, 2012.

K. Kast, N. Berens-riha, A. Zeynudin, N. Abduselam, T. Eshetu et al., Evaluation of Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte detection in different patient material, Malaria Journal, vol.12, issue.1, p.438, 2013.

J. Mischlinger, P. Pitzinger, L. Veletzky, M. Groger, R. Zoleko-manego et al., Use of Capillary Blood Samples Leads to Higher Parasitemia Estimates and Higher Diagnostic Sensitivity of Microscopic and Molecular Diagnostics of Malaria Than Venous Blood Samples, The Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol.218, issue.8, pp.1296-1305, 2018.

M. M. Sandeu, A. N. Bayibéki, M. T. Tchioffo, L. Abate, G. Gimonneau et al., Do the venous blood samples replicate malaria parasite densities found in capillary blood? A field study performed in naturally-infected asymptomatic children in Cameroon, Malaria Journal, vol.16, issue.1, p.345, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02014351

A. Lehane, M. Were, M. Wade, M. Hamadu, M. Cahill et al., Comparison on simultaneous capillary and venous parasite density and genotyping results from children and adults with uncomplicated malaria: a prospective observational study in Uganda, BMC Infectious Diseases, vol.19, issue.1, p.559, 2019.

E. Meibalan, A. Barry, M. P. Gibbins, S. Awandu, L. Meerstein-kessel et al., Plasmodium falciparum Gametocyte Density and Infectivity in Peripheral Blood and Skin Tissue of Naturally Infected Parasite Carriers in Burkina Faso, The Journal of Infectious Diseases, p.680, 2019.

L. Van-den-berghe, M. Chardome, and E. Peel, Supériorité des préparations de scarification du derme sur les préparations de sang périphérique pour le diagnostic de malaria, Instit Med Trop, vol.9, pp.553-562, 1952.

A. R. Palmer and C. Strobeck, Fluctuating asymmetry analyses: a primer, Developmental Instability: Its Origins and Evolutionary Implications, pp.335-364, 1994.

A. Rivero and S. Gandon, Evolutionary Ecology of Avian Malaria: Past to Present, Trends in Parasitology, vol.34, issue.8, pp.712-726, 2018.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02361577

R. Pigeault, J. Vézilier, S. Cornet, F. Zélé, A. Nicot et al., Avian malaria: a new lease of life for an old experimental model to study the evolutionary ecology of Plasmodium, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.370, issue.1675, p.20140300, 2015.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02361610

P. L. Alonso, G. Brown, M. Arevalo-herrera, F. Binka, C. Chitnis et al., A Research Agenda to Underpin Malaria Eradication, PLoS Medicine, vol.8, issue.1, p.e1000406, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00681191

A. L. Dearsly, R. E. Sinden, and I. A. Self, Sexual development in malarial parasites: gametocyte production, fertility and infectivity to the mosquito vector, Parasitology, vol.100, issue.3, pp.359-368, 1990.

J. Sattabongkot, N. Maneechai, and R. Rosenberg, Plasmodium vivax: gametocyte infectivity of naturally infected Thai adults, Parasitology, vol.102, issue.1, pp.27-31, 1991.

A. Gaye, M. Jawara, G. Libasse, C. Sokhna, L. Konaté et al., Infectiousness of the Human Population to Anopheles arabiensis by Direct Skin Feeding in an Area Hypoendemic for Malaria in Senegal, The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol.92, issue.3, pp.648-652, 2015.

A. L. Ouédraogo, T. Bousema, P. Schneider, S. J. De-vlas, E. Ilboudo-sanogo et al., Substantial Contribution of Submicroscopical Plasmodium falciparum Gametocyte Carriage to the Infectious Reservoir in an Area of Seasonal Transmission, PLoS ONE, vol.4, issue.12, p.e8410, 2009.

I. Morlais, S. E. Nsango, W. Toussile, L. Abate, Z. Annan et al., Plasmodium falciparum Mating Patterns and Mosquito Infectivity of Natural Isolates of Gametocytes, PLOS ONE, vol.10, issue.4, p.e0123777, 2015.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01806473

E. J. Dawes, S. Zhuang, R. E. Sinden, and M. Basáñez, The temporal dynamics of Plasmodium density through the sporogonic cycle within Anopheles mosquitoes, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol.103, issue.12, pp.1197-1198, 2009.

T. S. Churcher, R. E. Sinden, N. J. Edwards, I. D. Poulton, T. W. Rampling et al., Probability of Transmission of Malaria from Mosquito to Human Is Regulated by Mosquito Parasite Density in Naïve and Vaccinated Hosts, PLOS Pathogens, vol.13, issue.1, p.e1006108, 2017.

M. Nacher, Does the shape of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes have a function?, Medical Hypotheses, vol.62, issue.4, pp.618-619, 2004.

C. P. Nixon, Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte transit through the cutaneous microvasculature: A new target for malaria transmission blocking vaccines?, Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, vol.12, issue.12, pp.3189-3195, 2016.

G. Neveu, F. Dupuy, M. Ladli, D. Barbieri, B. Naissant et al., Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte-infected erythrocytes do not adhere to human primary erythroblasts, Scientific Reports, vol.8, issue.1, pp.1-11, 2018.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02390751

R. K. Barraclough, L. Duval, A. M. Talman, F. Ariey, and V. Robert, Attraction between sexes: male?female gametocyte behaviour within a Leucocytozoon toddi (Haemosporida), Parasitology Research, vol.102, issue.6, pp.1321-1327, 2008.

R. Jovani, L. Amo, E. Arriero, O. Krone, A. Marzal et al., Double gametocyte infections in apicomplexan parasites of birds and reptiles, Parasitology Research, vol.94, pp.155-157, 2004.

R. E. Paul, S. Bonnet, C. Boudin, T. Tchuinkam, and V. Robert, Aggregation in malaria parasites places limits on mosquito infection rates, Infection, Genetics and Evolution, vol.7, issue.5, pp.577-586, 2007.

T. Dekker, W. Takken, B. G. Knols, E. Bouman, S. Laak et al., Selection of biting sites on a human host by Anopheles gambiae s.s., An. arabiensis and An. quadriannulatus, Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, vol.87, issue.3, pp.295-300, 1998.

L. Braack, R. Hunt, L. L. Koekemoer, A. Gericke, G. Munhenga et al., Biting behaviour of African malaria vectors: 1. where do the main vector species bite on the human body?, Parasites & Vectors, vol.8, issue.1, p.76, 2015.

A. Bompard, D. F. Da, S. R. Yerbanga, I. Morlais, P. H. Awono-ambéné et al., High Plasmodium infection intensity in naturally infected malaria vectors in Africa, p.780064, 2019.

G. Valkiunas, Avian Malaria Parasites and other Haemosporidia, 2004.

J. Vézilier, A. Nicot, S. Gandon, and A. Rivero, Insecticide resistance and malaria transmission: infection rate and oocyst burden in Culex pipiens mosquitoes infected with Plasmodium relictum, Malaria Journal, vol.9, issue.1, p.379, 2010.

S. Nakagawa and H. Schielzeth, Repeatability for Gaussian and non-Gaussian data: a practical guide for biologists, Biological Reviews, vol.85, pp.no-no, 2010.

S. V. Dongen, . Molenberghs, and . Matthysen, The statistical analysis of fluctuating asymmetry: REML estimation of a mixed regression model, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, vol.12, issue.1, pp.94-102, 1999.

G. Verbeke and G. Molenberghs, Linear Mixed Models for Longitudinal Data, 2000.

A. R. Palmer and C. Strobeck, Fluctuating Asymmetry: Measurement, Analysis, Patterns, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol.17, issue.1, pp.391-421, 1986.

M. M. Lazi?, A. Kaliontzopoulou, M. A. Carretero, and J. Crnobrnja-isailovi?, Lizards from Urban Areas Are More Asymmetric: Using Fluctuating Asymmetry to Evaluate Environmental Disturbance, PLoS ONE, vol.8, issue.12, p.e84190, 2013.

N. K. Barto and . Mumin, Multi-model inference, 2014.

D. Bates, M. Mächler, B. Bolker, and S. Walker, Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Usinglme4, Journal of Statistical Software, vol.67, issue.1, 2015.

M. J. Crawley, . The, and . Book, , 2012.

B. M. Bolker, Ecological Models and Data in R, 2008.