H. Alout, R. K. Dabiré, L. S. Djogbénou, L. Abate, V. Corbel et al., Interactive cost of Plasmodium infection and insecticide resistance in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae, Scientific Reports, vol.6, p.29755, 2016.

H. Alout, I. Djègbè, F. Chandre, L. S. Djogbénou, R. K. Dabiré et al., Insecticide exposure impacts vector-parasite interactions in insecticide-resistant malaria vectors, Proceedings of the Royal Society B, vol.281, 2014.
DOI : 10.1098/rspb.2014.0389
URL : http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/281/1786/20140389.full.pdf

H. Alout, L. Djogbénou, C. Berticat, F. Chandre, and M. Weill, Comparison of Anopheles gambiae and Culex pipiens acetycholinesterase 1 biochemical properties, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, vol.150, pp.271-277, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cbpb.2008.03.008
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00454638

H. Alout, P. Labbé, F. Chandre, and A. Cohuet, Malaria vector control still matters despite insecticide resistance, Trends in Parasitology, vol.33, pp.610-618, 2017.
DOI : 10.1016/j.pt.2017.04.006

H. Alout, N. T. Ndam, M. M. Sandeu, I. Djégbe, F. Chandre et al., Insecticide resistance alleles affect vector competence of Anopheles gambiae s.s. for Plasmodium falciparum field isolates, PLoS ONE, vol.8, 2013.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0063849
URL : https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0063849&type=printable

H. Alout and M. Weill, Amino-acid substitutions in acetylcholinesterase 1 involved in insecticide resistance in mosquitoes, ChemicoBiological Interactions, vol.175, pp.138-141, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cbi.2008.03.018
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00454646

H. Alout, B. Yameogo, L. S. Djogbénou, F. Chandre, R. K. Dabiré et al., Interplay between Plasmodium infection and resistance to insecticides in vector mosquitoes, Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol.210, pp.1464-1470, 2014.
DOI : 10.1093/infdis/jiu276
URL : https://academic.oup.com/jid/article-pdf/210/9/1464/9637541/jiu276.pdf

B. S. Assogba, L. S. Djogbénou, P. Milesi, A. Berthomieu, J. Perez et al., An ace-1 gene duplication resorbs the fitness cost associated with resistance in Anopheles gambiae, the main malaria mosquito, Scientific Reports, vol.5, p.14529, 2015.

B. S. Assogba, P. Milesi, L. S. Djogbénou, A. Berthomieu, P. Makoundou et al., The ace-1 locus is amplified in all resistant Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes: fitness consequences of homogeneous and heterogeneous duplications, PLoS Biology, vol.14, 2016.

E. Axelsson, A. Ratnakumar, M. Arendt, K. Maqbool, M. T. Webster et al., The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet, Nature, vol.495, pp.360-364, 2013.

C. Berticat, G. Boquien, M. Raymond, and C. Chevillon, Insecticide resistance genes induce a mating competition cost in Culex pipiens mosquitoes, Genetics Research, vol.79, pp.41-47, 2002.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00186376

J. A. Birchler and R. A. Veitia, The gene balance hypothesis: From classical genetics to modern genomics, Plant Cell, vol.19, pp.395-402, 2007.
DOI : 10.1105/tpc.106.049338
URL : http://www.plantcell.org/content/plantcell/19/2/395.full.pdf

D. Bourguet, T. Guillemaud, C. Chevillon, and M. Raymond, Fitness costs of insecticide resistance in natural breeding sites of the mosquito Culex pipiens, Evolution, vol.58, pp.128-135, 2004.

D. Bourguet, A. Roig, J. P. Toutant, and M. Arpagaus, Analysis of molecular forms and pharmacological properties of acetylcholinesterase in several mosquito species, Neurochemistry International, vol.31, pp.65-72, 1997.

B. Conrad and S. E. Antonarakis, Gene duplication: A drive for phenotypic diversity and cause of human disease, Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, vol.8, pp.17-35, 2007.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.genom.8.021307.110233

M. J. Crawley, The R book, 2007.
DOI : 10.1002/9781118448908
URL : https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781118448908.fmatter

K. R. Dabiré, A. Diabaté, M. Namontougou, L. Djogbenou, P. Kengne et al., Distribution of insensitive acetylcholinesterase (ace-1 R ) in Anopheles gambiae s.l. populations from Burkina Faso (West Africa), Tropical Medicine & International Health, vol.14, pp.396-403, 2009.

L. Djogbénou, M. C. Akogbéto, and F. Chandre, Presence of insensitive acetylcholinesterase in wild populations of Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus from Benin, Acta Tropica, vol.107, pp.272-274, 2008.

L. Djogbénou, F. Chandre, A. Berthomieu, R. K. Dabiré, A. Koffi et al., Evidence of introgression of the ace-1 R mutation and of the ace-1 duplication in west African Anopheles gambiae s.s, PLoS ONE, vol.3, pp.1-7, 2008.

L. Djogbénou, P. Labbé, F. Chandre, N. Pasteur, and M. Weill, , 2009.

, Ace-I duplication in Anopheles gambiae: A challenge for malaria control, Malaria Journal, vol.8, p.70

L. Djogbénou, V. Noel, and P. Agnew, Costs of insensitive acetylcholinesterase insecticide resistance for the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae homozygous for the G119S mutation, Malaria Journal, vol.9, 2010.

O. Duron, P. Labbé, C. Berticat, F. Rousset, S. Guillot et al., High Wolbachia density correlates with cost of infection for insecticide resistant Culex pipiens mosquitoes, Evolution, vol.60, pp.303-314, 2006.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01946020

J. Essandoh, A. E. Yawson, and D. Weetman, Acetylcholinesterase (ace-1) target site mutation 119S is strongly diagnostic of carbamate and organophosphate resistance in Anopheles gambiae s.s. and Anopheles coluzzii across southern Ghana, Malaria Journal, vol.12, 2013.

J. L. Freeman, G. H. Perry, L. Feuk, R. Redon, S. A. Mccarroll et al., Copy number variation: New insights in genome diversity, Genome Research, vol.16, pp.949-961, 2006.

M. T. Gillies and M. Coetzee, A supplement to the anophelinae of Africa South of the sahara, 1987.

J. B. Haldane, The causes of evolution, 1932.

T. Kalisky, E. Dekel, and U. Alon, Cost-benefit theory and optimal design of gene regulation functions, Physical Biology, vol.4, pp.229-245, 2007.

C. Kamdem, B. Tene-fossog, F. Simard, J. Etouna, C. Ndo et al., Anthropogenic habitat disturbance and ecological divergence between incipient species of the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae, PLoS ONE, vol.7, 2012.

V. Katju and U. Bergthorsson, Copy-number changes in evolution: Rates, fitness effects and adaptive significance, Frontiers in Genetics, vol.4, pp.1-12, 2013.

V. Katju and M. Lynch, The structure and early evolution of recently arisen gene duplicates in the Caenorhabditis elegans genome, Genetics, vol.165, pp.1793-1803, 2003.

A. A. Koffi, L. P. Ahoua-alou, M. A. Adja, F. Chandre, and C. Pennetier, Insecticide resistance status of Anopheles gambiae s.s. population from M'Be: A WHOPES-labelled experimental hut station, 10 years after the political crisis in Cote d'Ivoire, Malaria Journal, vol.12, p.151, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01878627

F. A. Kondrashov, Gene duplication as a mechanism of genomic adaptation to a changing environment, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.279, pp.5048-5057, 2012.

F. A. Kondrashov and A. S. Kondrashov, Role of selection in fixation of gene duplications, Journal of Theoretical Biology, vol.239, pp.141-151, 2006.

A. Assogba,

R. Koszul, S. Caburet, B. Dujon, and G. Fischer, Eucaryotic genome evolution through the spontaneous duplication of large chromosomal segments, EMBO Journal, vol.23, pp.234-243, 2004.

P. Labbé, A. Berthomieu, C. Berticat, H. Alout, M. Raymond et al., Independent duplications of the acetylcholinesterase gene conferring insecticide resistance in the mosquito Culex pipiens, Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol.24, pp.1056-1067, 2007.

P. Labbé, C. Berticat, A. Berthomieu, S. Unal, C. Bernard et al., Forty years of erratic insecticide resistance evolution in the mosquito Culex pipiens, PLoS Genetics, vol.3, 2007.

P. Labbé, P. Milesi, A. Yébakima, N. Pasteur, M. Weill et al., Gene-dosage effects on fitness in recent adaptive duplications: ace-1 in the mosquito Culex pipiens, Evolution, vol.68, pp.2092-2101, 2014.

P. Labbé, N. Sidos, M. Raymond, and T. Lenormand, Resistance gene replacement in the mosquito Culex pipiens: Fitness estimation from long term cline series, Genetics, vol.182, pp.303-312, 2009.

T. Lehmann, A. Diabate, and A. Diabaté, The molecular forms of Anopheles gambiae: A phenotypic perspective, Infection, Genetics and Evolution, vol.8, pp.737-746, 2008.

T. Lenormand, D. Bourguet, T. Guillemaud, and M. Raymond, Tracking the evolution of insecticide resistance in the mosquito Culex pipiens, Nature, vol.400, pp.861-864, 1999.

T. Lenormand, T. Guillemaud, D. Bourguet, and M. Raymond, Appearance and sweep of a gene duplication: Adaptive response and potential for new functions in the mosquito Culex pipiens, Evolution, vol.52, p.1705, 1998.

T. Lenormand, T. Guillemaud, D. Bourguet, and M. Raymond, Evaluating gene flow using selected markers: A case study, Genetics, vol.149, pp.1383-1392, 1998.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00188542

K. J. Lipinski, J. C. Farslow, K. A. Fitzpatrick, M. Lynch, V. Katju et al., High spontaneous rate of gene duplication in Caenorhabditis elegans, Current Biology, vol.21, pp.306-310, 2011.

J. R. Lupski, C. A. Wise, A. Kuwano, L. Pentao, J. T. Parke et al., Gene dosage is a mechanism for CharcotMarie-Tooth disease type 1A, Nature Genetics, vol.1, pp.29-33, 1992.

M. Lynch, W. Sung, K. Morris, N. Coffey, C. R. Landry et al., A genome-wide view of the spectrum of spontaneous mutations in yeast, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, vol.105, pp.9272-9277, 2008.

J. Massoulié and S. Bon, L'acétylcholinestérase: Une structure originale pour une fonction vitale, Annales de l'Institut Pasteur/ Actualités, vol.4, pp.35-49, 1993.

P. Milesi, B. S. Assogba, C. M. Atyame, N. Pocquet, A. Berthomieu et al., The evolutionary fate of heterogeneous gene duplications: a precarious overdominant equilibrium between environment, sublethality and complementation, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01944241

P. Milesi, T. Lenormand, C. Lagneau, M. Weill, and P. Labbé, Relating fitness to long-term environmental variations in natura, Molecular Ecology, vol.25, pp.5483-5499, 2016.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01944379

P. Milesi, M. Weill, T. Lenormand, and P. Labbé, Heterogeneous gene duplications can be adaptive because they permanently associate overdominant alleles, Evolution Letters, vol.1, pp.169-180, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01938023

N. Moiroux, A. Djènontin, A. S. Bio-bangana, F. Chandre, V. Corbel et al., Spatio-temporal analysis of abundances of three malaria vector species in southern Benin using zero-truncated models, Parasites & Vectors, vol.7, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/ird-01079352

B. Papp, C. Pal, and L. D. Hurst, Dosage sensitivity and the evolution of gene families in yeast, Nature, vol.424, pp.194-197, 2003.

G. G. Perry, N. N. Dominy, K. K. Claw, A. A. Lee, H. Fiegler et al., Diet and the evolution of human amylase gene copy number variation, Nature Genetics, vol.39, pp.1256-1260, 2007.

M. Raymond, C. Chevillon, T. Guillemaud, T. Lenormand, and N. Pasteur, An overview of the evolution of overproduced esterases in the mosquito Culex pipiens, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, vol.353, pp.1707-1711, 1998.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00201879

E. J. Remnant, R. T. Good, J. M. Schmidt, C. Lumb, C. Robin et al., Gene duplication in the major insecticide target site, Rdl, in Drosophila melanogaster, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, vol.110, pp.14705-14710, 2013.

F. Santolamazza, M. Calzetta, J. Etang, E. Barrese, I. Dia et al., Distribution of knock-down resistance mutations in Anopheles gambiae molecular forms in west and west-central Africa, Malaria Journal, vol.7, 2008.

D. R. Schrider and M. W. Hahn, Gene copy-number polymorphism in nature, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.277, pp.3213-3221, 2010.

D. R. Schrider, D. Houle, M. Lynch, and M. W. Hahn, Rates and genomic consequences of spontaneous mutational events in Drosophila melanogaster, Genetics, vol.194, pp.937-954, 2013.

J. A. Scott, W. G. Brogdon, and F. H. Collins, Identification of single specimens of the Anopheles gambiae complex by the polymerase chain reaction, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol.49, pp.520-529, 1993.

G. T. Shute, A method of maintaining colonies of East African strains of Anopheles gambiae, Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, vol.50, pp.92-94, 1956.

J. B. Spofford, Heterosis and the evolution of duplications, American Naturalist, vol.103, pp.407-432, 1969.

B. Vogelstein and K. W. Kinzler, Digital PCR, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, vol.96, pp.9236-9241, 1999.

D. Weetman, S. N. Mitchell, C. S. Wilding, D. P. Birks, A. E. Yawson et al., Contemporary evolution of resistance at the major insecticide target site gene ace-1 by mutation and copy number variation in the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae, Molecular Ecology, vol.24, pp.2656-2672, 2015.

M. Weill, A. Berthomieu, C. Berticat, G. Lutfalla, V. Nègre et al., Insecticide resistance: A silent base prediction, Current Biology, vol.14, pp.552-553, 2004.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01946061

M. Weill, G. Lutfalla, K. Mogensen, F. Chandre, A. Berthomieu et al., Insecticide resistance in mosquito vectors, Nature, vol.423, pp.423-426, 2003.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00186375

M. Weill, C. Malcolm, F. Chandre, K. Mogensen, A. Berthomieu et al., The unique mutation in ace-1 giving high insecticide resistance is easily detectable in, 2004.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01946057